The First Crusade: War for the Holy Land
How medieval Europe attempted to recapture Jerusalem in the 11th century.
In March of 1095, Pope Urban II completed a tour of France and Italy. He held a council at Piacenza, in Lombardy. There, the Pontiff received ambassadors from the Byzantine Roman Empire. The Eastern Emperor, Alexios Komnenos, asked the Pope for military aid. The Seljuk Turks had seized control over most of Anatolia, and were poised to attack Constantinople.
Council of Clermont
The Pope recognized the close cultural ties between Rome and Constantinople. He strove to bring together the two halves of Christendom, which had been separated by the West-East Schism of 1054. The Roman Pontiff worked closely with both the Byzantine Emperor and the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople. Relations between the Latin and Greek Churches were warming up. While touring across Europe, Pope Urban spoke of the gravity of the Islamic threat to Christian civilization. But he stayed out of the French lands of King Philip I, who had been excommunicated for adultery. The Pope met with Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, who was one of Europe’s wealthiest lords. Raymond had campaigned in the Iberian peninsula, along with King Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile. Devoutly Christian and a seasoned veteran in the wars against the Moors in Spain, Raymond was a natural ally for the Pope’s Crusade against the Seljuk Turks. Another person the Pope met was Adhemar, the Bishop of Le Puy, who was appointed the ecclesiastical head of the military campaign. Clergy were asked to encourage local knights and nobles to attend the Pope’s Council of Claremont, where the Pontiff would officially launch the First Crusade. The Pope urged Latin Christians to come to the aid of their eastern counterparts. He claimed that their Byzantine co-religionists were being harassed and abused by the Seljuk Turks. The Western Crusaders sought to repel the Turks, and restore the territory of Byzantium. Urban made special appeals to the Christian significance of Jerusalem, where Jesus lived and died. The Pope told the European nobles that, as soldiers of Christian, they had a religious duty to fight for the Holy Land. Jerusalem was a significant pilgrimage site for Europe’s Christians. It was a special place full of holy relics, notably the Sepulcher of Christ.
Constantinople
Pope Urban’s Crusade was met with popular enthusiasm and a warm reception. Peter the Hermit organized a spontaneous uprising, known as the People’s Crusade, to go out and seize the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. Peter’s Crusade swelled with peasants, as well as some knights. As he moved across through Germany, he gained even more followers. Poorly provisioned and short on cash, the Crusade quickly ran out of supplies. The Crusaders had no qualms pillaging as they arrived into Byzantine territory. To appease the newcomers, Emperor Alexios arranged provisions for the Western Crusaders. Robert II, the Count of Flanders, arrived in Constantinople. His Flemish forces would be a valuable contribution to the Crusade. Count Raymond arrived with his large, well-equipped army from Southern France. The Bishop of Le Puy, the legate of the Pope, was also there. Count Raymond met with Emperor Alexios, who was deeply impressed by his Frankish friend. The last Crusader army to arrive was led by two men: Robert Curthose, the Duke of Normandy; and Stephen II, Count of Blois. These troops came from Northern France. While Pope Urban envisioned the Crusade as a collaboration between Eastern and Western Christendom, the truth is that there was animosity between the two sides. But for the time being, both Eastern and Western Christians agreed to confront the Muslims.
Siege of Nicaea
On May 6, 1097, the Crusaders began their siege of Nicaea. Nicaea was an ancient city on the northwestern edge of Asia Minor, in modern-day Turkey. Geographically, it was close to Constantinople. Nicaea was effectively the western entranceway into the Byzantine Empire. The city had fallen into Seljuk hands, acting as the capital of the Sultanate of Rum. Historically, this city was full of Christian significance. It was where the First Council of Nicaea was held in 325, which formalized many of the dogmas of mainstream Trinitarian Christianity. The Western Crusaders wanted to capture Nicaea, in order to use it as a base of future regional operations in Asia Minor. Kilij Arslan I, the Sultan of Rum, was away campaigning on his eastern frontier when he heard of the Crusaders’ siege. He marched up from the south, and launched an attack to break up the Crusader aggression. Christian cavalry smashed up the Turkish forces, thrusting the Sultan into full retreat. Godfrey of Bouillon made plans to establish a Crusader state in Mesopotamia, which could supply their campaigning in Syria. Upon invading Mesopotamia, the Crusaders seized the Turkish towns of Ravendel and Turbessel. By February of 1098, Baldwin of Boulogne entered triumphantly into Edessa, where he was greeted glamorously by the Armenians.
Fall of Antioch
Having secured the loyalty of the Armenians, the Crusaders began to march on Antioch in June of 1098. Under the cover of darkness, the Crusaders led a surprise offensive on the walls of Muslim-controlled Antioch. After months of siege, Antioch finally fell into Christian hands. The Byzantines sent reinforcements from Anatolia to aid the Western Crusaders. But Stephen II of Blois told the Emperor that the Crusaders had already been defeated. This was inaccurate, however.
Holy Lance
The Crusaders, facing the ghastly prospect of starvation, prayed for a miracle. One priest, Peter Bartholomew, claimed to have visions of St. Andrew. The saint assured him that, somehow in Antioch, was the Holy Lance. This relic reportedly was the lance used to pierce Christ’s side at Calvary. Many were skeptical of the priest’s story, but others believed. Among them was Count Raymond, who ordered an excavation beneath the Altar of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Antioch. Sure enough, they had found the Holy Lance! (Or at least somebody’s lance). The discovery of the Holy Lance was exactly the sign that the Crusaders needed. There were still some skeptics, such as the Bishop of Le Puy. But to the average soldier, it was more than good enough. The Holy Lance was a major morale boost, and it inspired the weary Christians to confront the Islamic forces of Kerbogha, the ruler of Mosul. Kerbogha’s forces led a fierce, month-long siege against Christian-held Antioch.
Bohemond’s victory
The Turks had many advantages over their Christian adversaries. They had greater numbers, and were equipped with powerful horses. The Crusader army had been reduced to just 200 horses. The majority of their troops had to fought on foot. The resistance was led by Bohemond, a seasoned military leader who successfully planned against the Turkish invasion. Bohemond chose to quickly withdraw his troops out of Antioch, which saved many casualties. The two sides clashed at various gates. Finally, the Crusaders were relieved by reinforcements, who beat back the Turks. By November, Antioch was safely in Crusader hands. The Franks settled down, consecrating churches and organizing parties of knights to protect against nearby fortresses. Bohemond became the de facto prince of Antioch. But before this decision could be finalized, the Crusaders agreed to offer the territory to Byzantium. The Byzantine Emperor had failed to provide any reinforcements during their fateful standoff against Kerbogha. Awaiting to hear back from Constantinople, Bohemond continued to act as Antioch’s leader. Bohemond’s new Crusader state became known as the Principality of Antioch. In the meanwhile, there was some minor power struggles between Bohemond and Count Raymond. Bohemond hesitated to lead the march on Jerusalem, despite his earlier promise to do so. On this respect, he was criticized by Raymond. The common soldiers grew deeply impatient with their leaders’ delays. They began to coalesce around Raymond as their new leader. Raymond was now an old man. When he first joined the Crusade, he had been one of the richest lords of Europe. But he was deeply moved by his soldiers’ pleas, and agreed to lead them to the Holy City. On January 13, 1099, Count Raymond led his army out of Antioch, heading toward Jerusalem.
Siege of Jerusalem
The First Crusade would reach its pinnacle with the capture of Jerusalem. Raymond marched his army south through Syria. Along the way, they encountered Saracen fortresses, which were used for tribute payments and provisions. Many of these tiny Islamic states were in rebellion against the Turkish Princes, such as the Emir of Damascus. These Muslims were happy to remain neutral in the conflict. Palestine was in the hands of the Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty based in Egypt. They controlled a vast Levantine empire. They were sworn enemies of the Sunni Seljuk Turks, and were keeping a close eye on the Crusaders’ progress. They had even sent embassies to the Crusaders, offering to collaborate against the Turks on the sole condition that they not attack Jerusalem. Unfortunately for the Fatimids, the Christian Crusaders would settle for nothing less than the conquest of the Holy City. On May 19, 1099, the Crusaders marched into Fatimid territory. They moved along the coast, passing the ports of Beirut, Sidon, Tyre, and Acre. Each of these ports were willing to offer supplies in exchange for peace. The Crusaders obliged, and they reached Jaffa by June 3. The Fatimids, realizing the Crusaders’ intentions, mobilized their own forces in Egypt. The Christian warriors were undeterred, maintaining that their faith would provide victory. By June 6, the Crusaders reached Bethlehem, an entirely Christian city that welcomed them as liberators. The next day, the Franks climbed the Hill of Montjoie. Jerusalem was in their line of vision. The Crusaders erupted with delight. By early July, the Crusaders prepared to besiege Jerusalem. Barefoot, the Christian army processed around the Walls of Jerusalem, holding up relics and singing prayers. The Fatimids, watching from the walls above, jeered at their Christian adversaries. The Muslims defied crosses and other Christian symbols taken from the city’s churches. The Crusaders finally stopped at the Mount of Olives where, according to Christian tradition, Jesus ascended into Heaven. There, they offered final prayers that God would grant them victory. On July 14, trumpets blasted at dawn, announcing the beginning of the Crusader assault. As the Fatimids watched from their ramparts, they realized that it had been a clever ruse. The Crusaders had already moved their siege equipment to the weakest point in the Muslim fortifications. The Crusaders fought ferociously, capturing the Gate of the Column, which they called St. Stephen’s Gate. Fatimid resistance collapsed as the Christians poured into Jerusalem. When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, many Jews and Muslims were put to the sword. However, reports of mass murder have been heavily exaggerated for propagandistic effect. It was unexceptional by the standards of medieval barbarism. Many of Jerusalem’s inhabitants were simply expelled from the city, or else given the chance to purchase their freedom. As the Crusaders plundered the Temple Mount, the Fatimid leadership fled to the Tower of David, where they surrendered to Count Raymond on July 15, 1099. The Count extended clemency, and allowed his Muslim enemies to safely return to Egypt.
Conquest and conversion
With the Latin capture of Jerusalem, Pope Urban’s dreams had come true. “Now that the city was taken,” wrote Raymond of Aguilers, a chronicler at the First Crusade, “it was well worth all our previous labors and hardships to see the devotion of the pilgrims at the Holy Sepulcher. How they rejoiced and exulted and sang a new song to the Lord!” Christian Crusaders knelt down before the Tomb of Christ. But before they could celebrate too long, an Egyptian army was already on its way to reverse their hard-fought victory. The Crusaders acted quickly to consolidate their conquest of the Holy City. On July 22, 1099, Godfrey was elected as the Defender of the Holy Sepulcher, and the ruler of the nascent Kingdom of Jerusalem. Under Godfrey’s leadership, the Crusaders led an offensive to confront the incoming Egyptians. Latin and Greek clergy gathered at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to pray for victory. On August 10, Godfrey led his army out of Jerusalem. Al-Afdal, the vizier of Egypt, had assembled a massive Muslim army, assembled from troops across the Fatimid caliphate. In what amounted to a brief battle, the Latin calvary led a successful and effective charge against the Islamic forces. After the victorious Battle of Ascalon, Jerusalem was now secured under Christian control
Crusader states
Within the next couple of decades, the newly established Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem would aggressively expand at the expense of its surrounding Muslim neighbors. Jerusalem was guarded by Godfrey and 300 of his knights, while the bulk of the Crusader army returned home to Europe. In addition to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Crusaders left behind two other states: the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Edessa. In December of 1099, the leaders of these Christian kingdoms gathered together to celebrate Christmas at the Holy Sepulcher. Robert of Flanders, Robert of Normandy, and Raymond IV of Toulouse all returned to Constantinople. There, the Crusader leaders were received as heroes by the Byzantines, who lavished them with great feasts. After these festivities, the two Roberts returned home to Europe. Count Raymond went on to found the fourth Crusader state: the County of Tripoli. It was sandwiched between Antioch and Jerusalem. News of Jerusalem’s capture spread across Latin Christendom back in Europe. Christians across the continent celebrated the seizure of the Holy Sepulcher, one of the holiest sites in their religion. Returning Crusaders were welcomed home as heroes. Their stories were immortalized by songs. Many Christian pilgrims were now able to safely travel to the Holy City.
Legacy
The First Crusade had an immeasurable effect on medieval Western Christendom. It solidified the creation of a new Crusading ideology, which gave religious legitimization to military campaigns against unbelievers. The success of the Crusade prompted the Pope to sanctify the wars in Spain against the Moors. Soldiers fighting Muslims in Iberia now enjoyed the spiritual indulgences dispensed by the Church. Conflicts with the pagans in the Baltics, known as the Northern Crusades, were fought with similar religious fanaticism and zeal. Centuries of Christian conflict against the Islamic Ottoman Empire would also go under the name of crusade. This includes conflicts as recent as the First World War. The First Crusade became one of the most written-about events of the Middle Ages. Even at the time, there was a plethora of medieval chroniclers and writers, whose works serve as original sources.
18th century
In the 18th century, Voltaire wrote his History of the Crusades, which detailed the rise of the Seljuks until the year 1195. David Hume, in his History of England, dismissed the Crusades as the “nadir of Western civilization.” A skeptic of Christianity, the Enlightenment historian invoked the Crusades as an indictment against Christian fanaticism. “The advantage indeed of science, moderation, humanity, was at that time entirely on the side of the Saracens,” he wrote, in allusion to Islam’s Golden Age. Hume’s perspective was upheld by Edward Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon’s chapter on this epoch of medieval history covers the time from 1095 to 1261. More modern histories were written throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the 1970s, there has been sustained scholarly interest in the Crusades.
War on Terror
The War on Terror has led to a renewed interest in the Crusades, which are often invoked by politicians both in the West and the Middle East for various reasons. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have been compared to Crusades. Those who support the War on Terror tend to interpret the Crusades as a medieval precursor to the fight against jihadism, seeing it as part of a larger “clash of civilizations” between the West and radical Islam. Arab nationalists and Islamic jihadists tend to cite the Crusades as an example of Western colonialism and aggression. Saddam Hussein was born in Tikrit, the same city as Saladin. The Ba’athist dictator often invoked the imagery of Saladin, presenting himself as a defender of Islam and the Arabs against the West. Even people within the West, such as President Obama, have regarded the Crusades as an unsavory chapter in European history that continues to alienate the Arab world. Critics of organized religion tend to draw a parallel between medieval Crusader ideology and the militant jihadism of modern-day terrorists—both being rooted in a religious doctrine of warfare against unbelievers. This perspective was seen in the polemics of the New Atheism movement of the early-to-mid 2000s, led by Sam Harris, Christopher Hitchens, and Richard Dawkins.
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