Julius Caesar: The Man of Antiquity

Introducing one of Antiquity's most famous personalities.

“Experience is the teacher of all things” —Julius Caesar, De Bello Civili

Julius Caesar is one of those names that everyone knows. He is universally recognized as an enduring symbol of Classical Antiquity. The mighty Caesar was one of the world’s most powerful rulers. He was born on July 12, 100 BC. He came from a patrician family. His father Gaius was the governor of Asia, while his mother Aurelia came from a more modest background. Little is known of his early life, but Caesar received a classical education in Greek history and philosophy. In his early teens, he began attending lectures in philosophy and rhetoric. Julius desired to perfect his oratory skills, in order to bolster his political ambitions. 

Rome’s Civil War

In Caesar’s youth, the Roman Forum was the city’s center for intellectual debate and political participation. There, the adolescent showed off his skills. Tragedy struck in 85 BC, when his father Gaius died. This left 16-year-old Caesar as head of the family. To make matters worse, Rome was engulfed in a civil war between a populist faction, led by Marius (Caesar’s uncle), against the more conservative faction of Sulla. After a bitter and bloody struggle, Sulla managed to gain power in Rome. Marius was exiled to Africa, and died shortly thereafter. 

With Sulla in power, those who had supported Marius were under pressure. Having married the daughter of Marius supporters, a woman named Cornelia, the teenage Caesar became a target for political harassment. Sulla ordered him to break off the marriage, but Caesar refused. He was proscribed, meaning that he was marked to be executed. Caesar, now aged 18, was forced into hiding. Through the influence of his mother’s family, Caesar managed to be spared the death penalty. Julius, still wary of Sulla’s power, decided to nonetheless keep his distance from the city of Rome. 

Caesar set his sights on a military career. He served under the governor of Asia, a man named Marcus Minucius Thermus. Young Caesar proved to be a natural soldier, fighting valiantly in the Roman provinces of Asia and Silesia. In 79 BC, Julius was awarded the leaves of the civic crown for saving a citizen’s life on the battlefield. Caesar’s newfound military fame led to his being chosen as an emissary to Nicodemus, King of Bithynia. He successfully persuaded the King to provide the Romans with fleets, although later rumors accused Caesar of being gay with the King. 

Sulla died in 78 BC, allowing Caesar to return to Rome. He left the army, and became a legal advocate. Having lost his property to Sulla’s confiscation, Caesar and his wife lived modestly in the poor neighborhoods of Suburra. Caesar solidified his reputation as an eloquent public speaker. 

Pirates and Populists

In 75 BC, en route to study in Greece, Caesar was captured by Sicilian pirates and held him for a ransom of 20 talents. Caesar was insulted, and demanded a higher ransom of 50 talents. The Roman was generally treated well by the pirates, and enjoyed his time in relaxation. He vowed to hunt down the pirates and have them crucified. When Caesar was later ransomed, he returned with a volunteer group and exacted his revenge against his former captors. Prior to their execution, he had their throats cut, as a show of leniency for their fairly benign treatment of him in captivity. Caesar was recalled into military service in Asia, where he was tasked with crushing a rebellion. After successfully subduing the revolt with a volunteer army, Caesar returned to Rome, where he was appointed as a military Tribune. It was his first foray into politics. 

Caesar was a supporter of the Populares, who had been suppressed under Sulla’s dictatorial rule. He went after Sulla’s aristocratic allies in court, but was unable to prosecute Dolabella, the governor of Macedonia. Caesar argued his case vehemently in the Roman Forum, which allowed him to gain support from the Roman people. Caesar positioned himself as a champion of ordinary Romans, and a spiritual successor to his uncle Marius. In court, he defended Marius’ supporters from trumped up political charges. Through his energetic boldness and persuasive logic, Caesar emerged as one of the Populares’ most distinguished figures. When Caesar’s aunt Julia, the wife of Marius, died, he arranged a prominent funeral for her. He gave a flattering oration in her honor, and lamented his uncle’s ouster from power. He also produced images of Marius for the crowd to see. Patricians in the audience objected, but they were shouted down by the crowd. His wife Cornelia died shortly after giving birth to their only legitimate child, Julia. Caesar himself delivered the eulogy. Soon after, he traveled to Spain in 69 BC. There, Caesar saw a statue of Alexander the Great, which prompted him to reflect on his own life. He was aged 32, the same age that Alexander achieved world dominance. Caesar felt small by comparison, and he vowed to achieve glory. 

Caesar, the Politician

Caesar made his meteoric rise through the ladder of Roman politics. In 67 BC, he won appointment to the Senate. That same year, he married Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla. The marriage only lasted six years, ending in divorce after his wife was caught in a political scandal. As an elected magistrate, Caesar curried favor with the public by staging lavish entertainment spectacles. Games were held, where gladiators from across the world battled with wild beasts. These extravagant displays cemented Caesar’s popularity with the masses, but they also strained his finances. In 63 BC, he ran for the position of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Rome. He continued to borrow money to fund his lavish games. Despite strong opposition from two senators, Caesar handily won the election. The following year, he was appointed as propraetor (“pro-magistrate”) in southern Spain. Before he could assume the role, however, Caesar was required to settle his massive debts. This forced him to turn to one of Rome’s richest man, Crassus. Crassus agreed to lend money to Caesar, but only in exchange for political clout. Caesar traveled to Spain, where he demonstrated his remarkable administrative abilities. There, he found military and financial success, allowing Julius to return to Rome a rich man. 

Caesar set his sights for the consulship, Rome’s highest political office. His bid for election was complicated by the growing tensions between two of Rome’s most influential leaders, Crassus and Pompey. Pompey was an esteemed military general, while Crassus was an opulent aristocrat. Caesar contrived a plan to unite the two rivals into a pragmatic alliance, known as the First Triumvirate, in order to get himself elected as consul. The plan worked. To solidify his ties with Pompey, Caesar arranged for his only-daughter Julia to marry into Pompey’s family. 

With support from Crassus and Pompey, Caesar was successfully elected consul in 59 BC. On paper, he was expected to co-rule with a man named Bibulus. But Caesar is not exactly known for sharing power! The Roman dictator proceeded to sideline his co-ruler, and assumed unilateral power. He did so under the pretense of directly representing the Roman people. Caesar was fiercely opposed by leading members of the Senate, such as the famous Cato. 

Gallic Wars

Now consul, Caesar redirected his attention toward his military exploits. With powerful political connections, Julius managed to secure proconsulship over three provinces for an unprecedented five-year governorship. He became governor of Illyricum, in the Balkans; Cisalpine Gaul, in northern Italy; and Transalpine Gaul, in southern France. When southeastern Gaul was invaded by the Helvetii tribe, Caesar saw a golden opportunity for conquest. Commanding six legions, the Roman dictator crushed his tribal foes in a fierce, five-hour battle. He then turned his attention to the Germanic tribes. Despite their reputation as fierce warriors, the Germans were defeated by Caesar’s legions at the Battle of Vosges. 

By 57 BC, Caesar had amassed an army of eight legions, about 40,000 men. He sought to pacify the Belgae tribes, winning a decisive victory at the Battle of the Sabis. By this time, Caesar had completed his conquest of Gaul. 

Having consolidated power within Rome, the dictator was ready to expand his hegemony into Britannia and Germania. In 55 BC, he rapidly built a bridge across the Rhine in a record-breaking ten days. The next year, in 54 BC, he returned to Britannia with five legions. The Britons resisted their Roman occupiers using hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. Still, the determination of their leader, and their disciplined regiments, made the Romans an unstoppable adversary. The Romans systematically hunted down the local rebels, forcing the Britons to sue for peace. Caesar negotiated an annual tribute, took some hostages, and left Britannica. It would be the last time the Roman general set foot on British soil. 

The Gauls, starting in 53 BC, began to resist Rome’s occupation. A revolt was organized by Vercingetorix, a powerful warrior who was determined to oust the Romans from Gaul. Caesar set out to crush the revolt with a staggering ten legions. After a string of defeats, Vercingetorix was forced to resort to a scorched earth policy. Caesar was defeated at Gergovia, but he struck back by putting the Gauls under siege at Alesia. Julius was himself besieged, but he managed to brilliantly reverse the siege against his tribal enemies. Vercingetorix was forced into a humiliating surrender. This famous scene from Antiquity was immortalized by the French painter Lionel Royer in 1899. The Gallic general was taken alive and brought back to Rome, where he was paraded like a caged animal. Caesar remained in Gaul, stamping out any residual resistance, until 51 BC. 

In 47 BC, Caesar voyaged to Turkey to subdue King Pharnaces II, who was threatening Rome’s nearby client states. With just three legions, Caesar easily crushed the Turkish revolt. There, the Roman military genius gave his famous quip: Veni, vidi, vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”). Over the next two years, Caesar put down rebellions in North Africa and Hispania. 

Crossing the Rubicon

Over the years of his military career, Caesar exerted his control back home through his political allies. In 56 BC, he met with Crassus and Pompey in order to renew their alliance. Over the next few years, however, the Triumvirate began to quickly disintegrate. Crassus was killed in battle at Carrhae in 53 BC, and Pompey began to distance himself from Caesar. Caesar’s wife, Julia, died, which only further fractured the two men’s alliance. When riots broke out in Rome in 52 BC, Pompey was elected as sole consul of Rome. He began to align himself with the Optimates in the Senate, a group of aristocrats who opposed Caesar. When news came of Caesar’s completed conquests, the Senate forbade him from returning to Rome. He was declared an outlaw. Even within the Populares, there was a division between the supporters of Caesar and Pompey. Caesar’s supporters wanted to have him elected in absentia, while his opponents demanded that he first disband his army. 

On January 10, 49 BC, Caesar did the unthinkable: he marched on Rome itself. “The die is cast,” he famously remarked. Caesar marched his legion across the Rubicon River, the border of his province. It was the first act of a civil war. Pompey, whose forces were too occupied with Spain, was forced to flee to the south. This enabled Caesar to march on Rome unopposed, where he declared himself dictator. Caesar’s top general, Mark Antony, was second-in-command. Caesar was elected consul, prompting him to disband his army and cede his dictatorial powers. 

Caesar chased after Pompey, leaving Mark Antony behind to maintain control in Rome. By this time, Pompey had established himself in Greece, and was amassing an army of his own to challenge Caesar. In 48 BC, the two armies clashed on the plains of Pharsalus. Pompey’s forces were twice as large as Caesar’s, but Julius managed to win through his use of superior tactics. Still, Pompey himself managed to escape to Egypt. After betraying the Egyptians, Pompey was assassinated. 

Prior to Caesar’s arrival in Alexandria, Egypt’s co-ruler, the 21-year-old Cleopatra, had been driven from the city. She had herself smuggled into Caesar’s presence in a rolled-up rug, where she implored the Roman general for military assistance in regaining her throne. Caesar, seeing in her a valuable ally, decided to oblige her request. Caesar launched a long siege of Alexandria, and burned down the Egyptian fleets. He held off a formidable force of 20,000 men for several months. Julius, receiving reinforcements from Rome, personally oversaw the ouster of the Egyptians from the capital. Cleopatra was re-installed as pharaoh. After spending two months with her, Caesar returned to Rome. On the way there, he put down a rebellion in Asia Minor. 

When Caesar returned to Rome, the city was in chaos, largely due to Mark Antony’s mismanagement. Caesar managed to restore order, calming a naval mutiny and crushing a revolt by the Optimates. 

Ides of March

Caesar was appointed dictator for ten years. Now at the height of his power and popularity, the Roman leader began to rule autocratically. This was to the dismay of Rome’s Senate. The Senate’s opposition to Caesar only intensified. 

In February 44 BC, Caesar was appointed dictator for life (dictator perpetuus), but he still maintained the vestiges of Rome’s republicanism. During the ceremony, he refused to wear the diadem that Mark Antony handed to him. Julius insisted that the god Jupiter was the only true King of the Romans. Caesar prepared to yet another campaign, this time against the Parthians. Before leaving, he attended a meeting with the Rome. It would be his last. 

The date was March 15, 44 BC—known as the Ides of March. Unknown to Caesar, 60 of his senatorial rivals came to the meeting with hidden daggers underneath their togas. Caesar entered the chamber, and walked toward his golden chair. The senators all jumped on him. “Why this violence?” Caesar cried out. Two of his supporters came to his aid, but were blocked by the conspirators. Within minutes, Caesar had been stabbed 23 times. His final act was to cover his face with his toga, so that no one would see his face before death. He died at the feet of a statue of Pompey. The conspirators wanted to throw Julius’ body in the Tiber River, but were stopped by Mark Antony. 

Ironically, the death of Caesar was not met with applause, but with riots. The conspirators were forced to flee the city. Caesar’s body was cremated, and a temple was built on the site.