Emperor Tiberius: A Biography
How Rome's second emperor went from a benevolent ruler to an unhinged despot.
Tiberius was Rome’s second emperor. He is not a household name like Augustus or Julius Caesar, but he played an integral role in Rome’s transition from a Republic to a vast overseas empire.
The Late Republic
Tiberius was born on November 16, 42 BC. This was two years after Julius Caesar’s assassination, and Tiberius’ childhood occurred in the shadow of the Late Republic’s civil wars.
His parents divorced shortly before his birth, in 39. His mother, Livia, became betrothed to Octavian, the future Augustus Caesar. Livia’s new marriage brought her into the bleeding heart of Rome’s tumultuous politics in the second half of the 2nd century BC. Over the previous century, the Republic had been plagued by civil wars, waged by power-hungry military generals. Tensions grew between Octavian and Mark Antony, culminating with the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC. This left Augustus in sole control of Rome. Rome was now an empire.
Augustus’ reign
Emperor Augustus adopted Tiberius as a son, putting him in line for imperial succession. In the 20s BC, Tiberius served in various functions as a military officer, reinforcing Augustus’ rule over the Roman Empire. He had two wives, Vipsania and then Julia. Tiberius didn’t like his wife Julia. When Julia’s pregnancy died in childbirth, he withdrew from her entirely. His marriage to Julia collapsed, and his political ambitions were undermined by the autocratic Augustus at every turn. By this point, Tiberius went into a self-imposed exile on the island of Rhodes in 6 BC. Julia went on to have an affair with Mark Antony’s son, but Augustus banished her from Rome in 2 BC.
During his time at Rhodes, Tiberius visited the sick, worked as a magistrate, and spent time with the locals. He attended philosophy lectures, and engaged in hearty intellectual debates. Tiberius began to regret his self-imposed exile, and he begged Augustus for a return to Rome. The emperor begrudgingly agreed to do so in 2 AD, but on the condition that Tiberius renounce any interest in politics. Four months later, Augustus put Tiberius into the line of imperial succession. Tiberius’ father, Germanicus, was a much-beloved Roman general. Germanicus was set in line to be Rome’s fourth emperor, while Tiberius would succeed Augustus.
Tiberius’ German campaigns, from 4-5 AD, earned him popularity in Rome. They were massively successful. As a result, Rome began to expand its borders from the Rhine to the River Elbe. In 6 AD, after wintering in Rome, Tiberius prepared to attack the Marcomanni tribe in the region around modern-day Austria and Czechia, but he was distracted by revolts to the south in Dalmatia and Pannonia.
The moderate emperor (14-22 AD)
Augustus died in 14 AD, and the emperor was deified. Tiberius, who was in his 50s, was proclaimed Rome’s new leader. Tiberius was disliked by the Senate. He lavished honors on his mother Livia. This was seen negatively, because traditional Roman values excluded women from politics.
Tiberius formally refused the title of Augustus, but in practice he was an emperor. He presented himself as a moderate, and was open-minded toward the Senate. He was more kind toward the old institutions of Rome’s Republic, especially compared to later emperors. He permitted the Senate to elect magistrates. In his early reign, he did not interfere with the Senate’s debates. He believed in the Senate’s right to make their own decisions. Unlike Augustus, Tiberius expected the Senate to handle its own affairs. He affirmed the right of free speech, and hated the flattery associated with his office. He didn’t like gladiator games, and limited the number of games that could take place. In 15 AD, the emperor ruled that actors could not be flogged. But he did impose restrictions on them. In 23, actors would be outright banished from Rome. Tiberius’ interference in Rome’s public entertainment was deeply unpopular among the people. The emperor attempted to curry favor using welfare measures. When the Tiber flooded in 15, he created a board of curators to investigate. In 17, he provide generous grants to Asian towns, which had been victims of an earthquake. In 22, he fixed prices of corn to keep it affordable for the Romans.
In the early years of his reign, Tiberius took an active interest in law. He attended courts. He cracked down on corruption and bribery. But Tiberius also passed more repressive measures. The law of majestas made it a sacrilege to disrespect the Roman emperor. This treason law was exploited for trumped up charges, usually involving adultery or extortion. Tiberius often intervened, dismissing minor cases and proposing milder sentences for the guilty, depending on the crime and status of the offenders. While Tiberius remained in Rome, the campaign in Germania continued into 15 AD. The goal was to secure the border along the Rhine. He clashed with his general, Germanicus, over policies in Egypt, considered the breadbasket of Rome’s empire.
Reign of terror (24-37 AD)
By the mid-20s, in the face of conspiracies, the emperor began to take challenges to his rule more seriously. He regarded insults to his office as sacrileges. He moved away from Rome, and ruled from his country villa on the island of Capri, in the Bay of Naples. Rumors spread that Tiberius engaged in sadistic activities and sexual perversion. These rumors were probably false, but they are recounted by the historian Suetonius, and show how unpopular Tiberius was among Rome’s public by his middle reign. Meanwhile, back in Rome, a man named Sejanus conspired to become the city’s de facto ruler.
By 26 AD, Tiberius fully retired from his imperial duties. He traveled to Campania. He dedicated temples at Capua and Nola. He settled permanently at his new palace on the island of Capri. As tensions escalated between him and his wife, Tiberius became increasingly erratic and vengeful. In 31, Tiberius ordered the Senate to execute Sejanus, who was then-head of the Praetorian Guard. By the end of the year, the rest of his family, including his three kids and Livia Julia, were dead. Tiberius began to institute treason trials, on charges of violating majestas. He prosecuted the former followers of Sejanus. Although a moderate leader in most respects, Tiberius would be remembered negatively by Roman writers for the excesses of his later reign. He died on March 16, 37 AD, at the age of 77.