Augustus: The First Caesar

The life of one of history's most influential emperors.

All hail Caesar! The very name of Caesar conjures up the glory and splendor of ancient Rome. Augustus Caesar, Rome’s first emperor, was a pivotal figure in the transition of the Republic into a vast pan-Mediterranean empire. On the one hand, he was an enlightened ruler who spread Roman culture across the Old World. But to his detractors, Augustus was a power-hungry tyrant who dismantled the remnants of republicanism, transforming Rome into a despotic monarchy. In any case, Augustus’ reign inaugurated one of the most prolific periods in human history, known as the Pax Romana.

Birth of Caesar

Gaius Octavius was born on September 23, 63 BC. His family came from the landed gentry of Velitrae. His great uncle was the famous Julius Caesar, whom he greatly admired as a child. Judging from his childhood, one would never guess that Octavian would become the mighty Augustus, one of the world’s most famous men. He was a weak and sickly child, who was overly attached to his mother. His father died when he was age 4. He received his education from his grandma, a woman named Julia Minor. When Julia died in 51 BC, Octavian was selected to deliver her eulogy. A few years later, he became a high-ranking priest. 

In 50 BC, Rome was embroiled in a civil war. On one side were the followers of Pompey, who demanded Caesar give up his governorship of Gaul. Caesar and Mark Antony, on the other hand, desired to depose Pompey. It was the final episode in the collapse of the First Triumvirate. Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, sparking a civil war against Pompey. Young Augustus greatly supported his great uncle, but he was too young to actually participate in military affairs. 

Over the course of Caesar’s civil war, the young Octavian gradually rose to prominence in Roman politics. Octavian successfully persuaded Julius Caesar to spare the life of a friend, named Marcus Agrippa. This secured Agrippa’s life-long loyalty to Octavian. Mark Antony was an incompetent ruler of Rome, and the Eternal City was brought to near revolution in 46 BC. When Julius Caesar returned to Rome, he was horrified, and he sent Antony into exile. This created a power vacuum, leaving Julius to handpick a successor. That would be Octavian. Anthony, jealous that he was sidelined by Julius Caesar, began a bitter rivalry with Octavian that would shape Roman history for generations. 

Mark Antony

In the aftermath of Caesar’s assassination, Octavian was advised by his friend Agrippa to stay in Rome and claim his inheritance. It proved to be excellent advice. Antony successfully stirred up mobs to force Caesar’s assassins, Cassius and Brutus, out of Rome. 

Mark Antony made a number of mistakes, which proved fatal for his consulship. He tried a rapprochement with the Senate, but it was deeply unpopular. Some senators, such as Cicero, regarded Antony as unstable and dangerous, and rallied in Octavian’s favor. To make matters worse, Antony invaded Cisalpine Gaul, which was perceived by the Senate as an implicit threat to themselves. Antony was declared an enemy of the state in 43 BC, and the Senate authorized Octavian to destroy him. 

In an odd turn of events, the two rivals decided to forge an alliance against the Senate. With another man named Lepidus, Antony and Octavian formed what became known as the Second Triumvirate. After eliminating some of their common rivals, their fragile alliance eventually frayed. Antony went to Egypt, where he ingratiated himself to Egyptian queen Cleopatra. This outraged the Romans, who supported Octavian against Mark Antony. To gain popular support, Octavian patronized lavish games and spread propaganda about his rival Antony. 

Agrippa imposed a crippling blockade against Antony and his allies in the Ionian Sea. On September 2, 31 BC, a weakened Antony attempted to smash the blockade with his remaining ships. It proved to be an unmitigated disaster for him. Antony was decisively defeated at the Battle of Actium, where his navy was decimated. Antony himself managed to escape with Cleopatra, but they lost all their power. Octavian extended clemency to Antony’s men, allowing them to disband with honor. 

In the winter of 31-31 BC, Octavian prepared to deal the death blow to Antony and his Egyptian mistress: an invasion of Egypt. Crossing overland through Syria, the Roman general confronted the territory of his rival. Antony and his lover committed suicide. 

From Republic to Empire

Octavian, aged 33, was the only man left standing. As Rome’s sole ruler, he reorganized the Republic. He consolidated the western and eastern parts. Egypt was no longer independent, and it became Octavian’s personal property. The possession of Egypt greatly enriched Octavian, making him one of history’s richest men. He pressured the Senate to give him dominion over Gaul, Hispania, and Syria. This meant that Octavian owned his own personal empire within the Roman Republic. He ruthlessly stamped out any remnants of loyalism toward his deceased rival Anthony. 

Offering to step down in 27 BC, Octavian was urged to retain power by the Roman Senate, which gave him his famous title Augustus (“revered one”). When he nearly died of illness in 24 BC, Augustus appointed his old friend Agrippa as his heir apparent. Unfortunately for the Senate, Augustus recovered from his illness. The Emperor-to-be demanded that the Senate relinquish the vestiges of its power, which it did on July 1, 23 BC. The Republic was dead. Growing increasingly paranoid, Augustus arranged for Agrippa to marry his 18-year-old daughter Julia. 

Nevertheless, Augustus did make some much-needed reforms to Rome’s administration. At the time, bribery was rampant. Private tax collectors were corrupt extortionists. He introduced a new system of professional civil servants, based on meritocracy. He created fire and police forces for Rome. He modernized the Empire’s infrastructure, notably roads. The Emperor established a standing navy to patrol the Mediterranean, protecting Roman ships. He transformed the army into a professional fighting force, salaried by the Roman state. This meant that Caesar enjoyed unchecked control over Rome’s military legions. He provided pensions for veterans, ensuring their loyalty to the Emperor rather than their generals. 

Although ancient Rome is often imagined as as an orgiastic paradise of sexual pleasure, the Romans were quite traditional in their outlook on marriage. In 18 BC, Augustus began to enact morality laws. He passed one controversial law which made adultery a crime against the state. This meant that Roman women could be punished in court, or even killed, for their sexual liaisons. Augustus tried to promote marriage, imposing financial costs on celibacy. In private, the Emperor was as lascivious as any normal hot-blooded male. He was a rampant philanderer. 

Pax Romana

Determined to expand Rome’s borders, he waged a war against the northern Germanic tribes in 17 BC. It was a long, bloody affair that culminated with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. It was one of the few times that Rome’s legendary military was defeated by an outsider force. The defeat was so thorough, that Rome’s expansionism did not resume until Claudius’ invasion of Britain about 40 years later. 

Augustus’ later reign was rather unremarkable. He wrote the Deeds of the Divine Augustus, a classic work of ancient Roman literature. For unknown reasons, he exiled the famous poet Ovid. Augustus withdrew from public life in 9 AD, leaving the Empire to his appointed heir Tiberius. At the age of 76, Augustus Caesar died on August 19, 14 AD.